Analysis of Pollution and Toxic Phytoplankton Communities in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba
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Published:
Jan 12, 2026
Keywords:
toxic phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, contamination, Guantánamo bay
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Abstract
An environmental study was conducted in Guantánamo Bay (Cuba) during the dry season of 2024 to assess pollution status and the presence of toxic phytoplankton communities and their relationship with environmental parameters. The study integrates sampling data with local observations and historical records to triangulate findings. Through sampling at 15 stations, sediment and water samples were analyzed using optical microscopy, spectrophotometry, and mass spectrometry. Thirteen cyanobacteria species (six toxigenic) producing microcystins and anatoxins were identified, along with dinoflagellate cysts and remains. Physicochemical parameters showed eutrophic conditions and traces of metals such as cadmium (Cd) exceeding established limits. Consultation of official records and interviews with local fishermen corroborate the historical occurrence of massive fish mortality events and visible changes in water coloration. The presence of high organic load, metals, and proliferation of toxic species suggests critical environmental deterioration. The hypereutrophic condition of the water body was confirmed with a high value (8.2) of the trophic index. These findings, although limited to one seasonal period, demonstrate the need to implement continuous monitoring programs that integrate physicochemical, toxicological, and microbiological analyses to mitigate impacts on public health and economic uses of the ecosystem.
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García GonzálezA., Gómez LunaL. M., Ramos FrómetaC., & Marzo ManuelY. (2026). Analysis of Pollution and Toxic Phytoplankton Communities in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Cub@: Medio Ambiente Y Desarrollo, 26, https://cu-id.com/1961/v26e01. Retrieved from https://cmad.ama.cu/index.php/cmad/article/view/417
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Original Article
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
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Gómez, L. L. M., Asín, O., & Ortega, Y. (2014). Primer reporte de Oxyrrhis marina DUJARDIN 1841 en la Bahía de Guantánamo, Cuba. Revista de Investigaciones Marinas, 34(1), Article 1. https://revistas.uh.cu/rim/arti-cle/view/6328
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ISOIEC. (2017). ISO/IEC 17025-General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. https://webstore.ansi.org/standards/iso/isoiec170252017
Loza, S. L., Sánchez, M., & Montalvo, J. F. (2016). Implicaciones del deterioro ambiental para los ecosistemas costeros. Estudio de caso: “Bahía de Guantánamo, Cuba”. Serie Oceanológica, 15, 15. Disponible en: http://hdl.han-dle.net/1834/12932
Luna, L. M. G., Palanqué, A. Z., Ochoa, Z. C. C., Arencibia, Y. Á., Alonso, J. A. B., & Mazar, A. de las M. B. (2021). Implementación de un protocolo de gestión de riesgo por presencia de ficotoxinas en la laguna de Baconao, Santiago de Cuba. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 50(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/ 10.25268/bimc.invemar.2021.50.1.980
Matsuoka, K., & Fukuyo, Y. (2000). Technical Guide for Modern Dinoflagellate Cyst Study. Westpac-hab, Jap. Soc. Prom. Sci., Tokyo, 72.
Mazumder, A., & Havens, K. E. (1998). Nutrient-chlorophyll-Secchi relationships under contrasting grazer communities of temperate versus subtropical lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(7), 1652-1662. https://doi.org/10.1139/f98-050
Millero, F. J. (2013). Chemical Oceanography, Fourth Edition. CRC Press. https://books.google.com.cu/books/about/Chemical_Oce-anography_Fourth_Edition.html?id=w780s8h_qrkC&re-dir_esc=y
Moreira, J. M., Carpintero, I. R., Crespo, R., Granado, L., Montoya, G., Pino, I., & Rodríguez, A. (2009). Generación de indicadores para el seguimiento de la calidad de las aguas litorales. Evolución de la turbidez en la desembocadura del río Guadalquivir. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4370.1129
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ONN, C. (1999b). NC 25: 1999 Evaluación de los objetos hídricos de uso pesquero. Norma Cubana.
Osswald, J., Carvalho, A. P., Claro, J., & Vasconcelos, V. (2009). Effects of cyanobacterial extracts containing anatoxin-a and of pure anatoxin-a on early developmental stages of carp. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(2), 473-478. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.05.011
Paerl, H. W., & Barnard, M. A. (2020). Mitigating the global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms: Moving targets in a human- and climatically-altered world. Harmful Algae, 96, 101845. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101845
Pan, S., Bian, Z., Tian, H., Yao, Y., Najjar, R. G., Friedrichs, M. A. M., Hofmann, E. E., Xu, R., & Zhang, B. (2021). Impacts of Multiple Environmental Changes on Long-Term Nitrogen Loading From the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 126(5), e2020JG005826. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JG005826
Pisoni, J. P., Rivas, A. L., & Tonini, M. H. (2020). Coastal upwelling in the San Jorge Gulf (Southwestern Atlantic) from remote sensing, modelling and hydrographic data. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 245, 106919. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106919
Quiblier, C., Wood, S., Echenique-Subiabre, I., Heath, M., Villeneuve, A., & Jean-François, H. (2013). A review of current knowledge on toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacteria-Ecology, toxin production and risk management. Water Research, 47(15), 5464-5479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.042
Rodríguez Tito, J. C., & Gómez Luna, L. M. (2020). Trophic status of twenty-four water reservoirs in the eastern of Cuba. Revista Cubana de Química, 32(1), 136-153.
Silva, R., Martínez, M. L., van Tussenbroek, B. I., Guzmán-Rodríguez, L. O., Mendoza, E., & López-Portillo, J. (2020). A Framework to Manage Coastal Squeeze. Sustainability, 12(24), Article 24. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su122410610
US EPA. (2015). National Recommended Water Quality Criteria-Aquatic Life Criteria Table [Data and Tools]. https://www.epa.gov/wqc/national-recommended-water-quality-criteria-aquatic-life-criteria-table
Vollenweider, R., Giovanardi, F., Montanari, G., & Rinaldi, A. (1998). Characterization of the trophic conditions of marine coastal waters with special reference to the NW Adriatic Sea: Proposal for a trophic scale, turbidity and generalized water quality index. Environmetrics, 9(3), 329-357. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-095X (199805/06)9:3%253C329::AID-ENV308%253E3.0.CO;2-9
Ayala-Galván, K., Gutiérrez-Salcedo, J. M., Montoya-Cadavid, E., Ayala-Galván, K., Gutiérrez-Salcedo, J. M., & Montoya-Cadavid, E. (2022). Fitoplancton de la provincia oceánica del mar Caribe colombiano. Diez años de historia. Biota colombiana, 23(1). https:// doi.org/10.21068/2539200x.903
Barros, M. U. G., Wilson, A. E., Leitão, J. I. R., Pereira, S. P., Buley, R. P., Fernandez-Figueroa, E. G., & Capelo-Neto, J. (2019). Environmental factors associated with toxic cyanobacterial blooms across 20 drinking water reservoirs in a semi-arid region of Brazil. Harmful Algae, 86, 128-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2019.05.006
Benavides, M. O., & Gómez-Restrepo, C. (2005). Métodos en investigación cualitativa: Triangulación. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 34(1), 118-124.
Brandenburg, K. M., Merder, J., Budiša, A., Power, A. M., Philippart, C. J. M., Michalak, A. M., van den Broek, T. J., & Van de Waal, D. B. (2025). Multiple global change factors and the long-term dynamics of harmful algal blooms in the North Sea. Limnology and Oceanography, n/a(n/a). https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.70025
CDC. (2022). Información sobre proliferaciones de algas nocivas marinas para los profesionales de centros de control de intoxicaciones y envenenamientos. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 7.
Corbel, S., Mougin, C., & Bouaïcha, N. (2014). Cyanobacterial toxins: Modes of actions, fate in aquatic and soil ecosystems, phytotoxicity and bioaccumulation in agricultural crops. Chemosphere, 96, 1-15. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.07.056
Dillard, G. E. (2008). Common Freshwater Algae of the United States: An Illustrated Key to the Genera (excluding the Diatoms). J. Cramer. https://books.goo-gle.com.cu/books/about/Common_Freshwater_Al-gae_of_the_United_St.html?id=h01FAQAAIAAJ&re-dir_esc=y
Faust, M. A., & Gulledge, R. A. (2002). Identifying harmful marine dinoflagellates. Washington, DC: Departamento de Botánica, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural. En Contribuciones del Herbario Nacional de los Estados Unidos. http://repository.si.edu/xmlui/han-dle/10088/27121
Fofonoff, N. P., & Millard, R. C. (1983). Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties of seawater. UNESCO Technical Papers in Marine Science, 44, 53.
García-González, A., Gómez-Luna, L. M., Marzo-Manuel, Y., & Ferrer-Pozo, E. (2024). Caracterización ambiental del ecosistema marino-costero bahía de Guantánamo en Cuba. Revista Bionatura. International Journal of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, 9(3), 127-148.
García-González, A., Gómez-Luna, L. M., Marzo-Manuel, Y., & Ferrer-Pozo, E. (2025). Análisis de la calidad del agua y su evolución temporal en la bahía de Guantánamo, Cuba. Chemical Technology, 45, 112-130.
Glibert, P. M. (2024). Harmful Algae and the Blooming of Our Waters. En el libro Fitoplancton Susurrando: Una Introducción a la Fisiología y Ecología de las Microalgas. En ResearchGate (pp. 583-629). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53897-1_25
Glibert, P. M., & Burford, M. A. (2017). Globally Changing Nutrient Loads and Harmful Algal Blooms: Recent Advances, New Paradigms, and Continuing Challenges. Oceanography, 30(1), 58-69. https://doi.org/10.5670/oce-anog.2017.110
Gobler, C. J. (2020). Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms: Insights and perspective. Harmful Algae, 91, 101731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2019.101731
Gómez, L. L. M., Asín, O., & Ortega, Y. (2014). Primer reporte de Oxyrrhis marina DUJARDIN 1841 en la Bahía de Guantánamo, Cuba. Revista de Investigaciones Marinas, 34(1), Article 1. https://revistas.uh.cu/rim/arti-cle/view/6328
Gómez-Luna, L. M., Hubert- Álvarez, I., & Rodríguez-Tito,
J. C. (2012). CUBA: Evaluación, investigación y gestión del riesgo de cianobacterias tóxicas. En libro: Enfoques actuales para la evaluación del riesgo de cianotoxinas, la gestión de riesgos y las regulaciones en diferentes países (Dra. Ingrid Chorus). Agencia Federal de Medio Ambiente, Alemania. https://www.researchgate.net/publi-cation/281844832_CUBA_Toxic_cyanobacteria_risk_as-sessment_research_and_management
Guiry, M., Guiry, G., Morrison, L., Rindi, F., Valenzuela, S., Mathieson, A., Parker, B., Langangen, A., John, D., Criado, I., Carter, C., Kuipers, P., & Garbary, D. (2014). AlgaeBase: An On-line Resource for Algae. Cryptogamie Algologie, 35, 105-115. https://doi.org/ 10.7872/crya.v35.iss2.2014.105
Harding, J., Mallonee, M. E., Perry, E. S., Miller, W. D., Adolf, J. E., Gallegos, C. L., & Paerl, H. W. (2016). Variable climatic conditions dominate recent phytoplankton dynamics in Chesapeake Bay. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 23773. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23773
ISOIEC. (2017). ISO/IEC 17025-General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. https://webstore.ansi.org/standards/iso/isoiec170252017
Loza, S. L., Sánchez, M., & Montalvo, J. F. (2016). Implicaciones del deterioro ambiental para los ecosistemas costeros. Estudio de caso: “Bahía de Guantánamo, Cuba”. Serie Oceanológica, 15, 15. Disponible en: http://hdl.han-dle.net/1834/12932
Luna, L. M. G., Palanqué, A. Z., Ochoa, Z. C. C., Arencibia, Y. Á., Alonso, J. A. B., & Mazar, A. de las M. B. (2021). Implementación de un protocolo de gestión de riesgo por presencia de ficotoxinas en la laguna de Baconao, Santiago de Cuba. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 50(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/ 10.25268/bimc.invemar.2021.50.1.980
Matsuoka, K., & Fukuyo, Y. (2000). Technical Guide for Modern Dinoflagellate Cyst Study. Westpac-hab, Jap. Soc. Prom. Sci., Tokyo, 72.
Mazumder, A., & Havens, K. E. (1998). Nutrient-chlorophyll-Secchi relationships under contrasting grazer communities of temperate versus subtropical lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(7), 1652-1662. https://doi.org/10.1139/f98-050
Millero, F. J. (2013). Chemical Oceanography, Fourth Edition. CRC Press. https://books.google.com.cu/books/about/Chemical_Oce-anography_Fourth_Edition.html?id=w780s8h_qrkC&re-dir_esc=y
Moreira, J. M., Carpintero, I. R., Crespo, R., Granado, L., Montoya, G., Pino, I., & Rodríguez, A. (2009). Generación de indicadores para el seguimiento de la calidad de las aguas litorales. Evolución de la turbidez en la desembocadura del río Guadalquivir. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4370.1129
Munkes, B., Löptien, U., & Dietze, H. (2021). Cyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea: A review of models and facts. Biogeosciences, 18(7), 2347-2378. https://doi.org/ 10.5194/bg-18-2347-2021
ONEI. (2022). Sistema nacional estadístico. ONEI.
ONN. (2007). NC 521: 2007 Vertimiento a Zona Costera. https://studylib.es/doc/8336696/nc-521-vertimiento-a-zona-costera
ONN, C. (1999a). NC 22: 1999 Requisitos higiénicos sanitarios en lugares de baño en costas y en masas de aguas interiores. Norma Cubana.
ONN, C. (1999b). NC 25: 1999 Evaluación de los objetos hídricos de uso pesquero. Norma Cubana.
Osswald, J., Carvalho, A. P., Claro, J., & Vasconcelos, V. (2009). Effects of cyanobacterial extracts containing anatoxin-a and of pure anatoxin-a on early developmental stages of carp. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(2), 473-478. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.05.011
Paerl, H. W., & Barnard, M. A. (2020). Mitigating the global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms: Moving targets in a human- and climatically-altered world. Harmful Algae, 96, 101845. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101845
Pan, S., Bian, Z., Tian, H., Yao, Y., Najjar, R. G., Friedrichs, M. A. M., Hofmann, E. E., Xu, R., & Zhang, B. (2021). Impacts of Multiple Environmental Changes on Long-Term Nitrogen Loading From the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 126(5), e2020JG005826. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JG005826
Pisoni, J. P., Rivas, A. L., & Tonini, M. H. (2020). Coastal upwelling in the San Jorge Gulf (Southwestern Atlantic) from remote sensing, modelling and hydrographic data. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 245, 106919. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106919
Quiblier, C., Wood, S., Echenique-Subiabre, I., Heath, M., Villeneuve, A., & Jean-François, H. (2013). A review of current knowledge on toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacteria-Ecology, toxin production and risk management. Water Research, 47(15), 5464-5479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.042
Rodríguez Tito, J. C., & Gómez Luna, L. M. (2020). Trophic status of twenty-four water reservoirs in the eastern of Cuba. Revista Cubana de Química, 32(1), 136-153.
Silva, R., Martínez, M. L., van Tussenbroek, B. I., Guzmán-Rodríguez, L. O., Mendoza, E., & López-Portillo, J. (2020). A Framework to Manage Coastal Squeeze. Sustainability, 12(24), Article 24. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su122410610
US EPA. (2015). National Recommended Water Quality Criteria-Aquatic Life Criteria Table [Data and Tools]. https://www.epa.gov/wqc/national-recommended-water-quality-criteria-aquatic-life-criteria-table
Vollenweider, R., Giovanardi, F., Montanari, G., & Rinaldi, A. (1998). Characterization of the trophic conditions of marine coastal waters with special reference to the NW Adriatic Sea: Proposal for a trophic scale, turbidity and generalized water quality index. Environmetrics, 9(3), 329-357. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-095X (199805/06)9:3%253C329::AID-ENV308%253E3.0.CO;2-9